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Participle Modifiers 2 -ed / -ing

Express a completed state vs. an ongoing process

Completed -ed / Ongoing -ing

COMPLETED STATE
Verbs expressing a process may take past participle forms which can modify nouns and express completed states. These modifiers have some adjective and some verb-like properties.
COMPLETED
This is a roasted chicken — done!
Grown children often move out of the house.
Broken dishes were all over the floor.
Fallen trees littered the forest floor.
Fried potatoes would taste good right now.
He was a well-loved child (beloved)

ONGOING QUALITY OR STATE
Verbs expressing a process may also take present participle forms, which can modify nouns and express states in progress (ongoing). These modifiers also have adjective-like and verb-like properties.
ONGOING
This is a roasting chicken — still cooking!
Growing children need a lot of food.
Breaking dishes startled the diners. (the sound)
Falling trees are a danger to hikers.
Frying potatoes smell delicious.
He is a loving husband.

litter (N) – scatter (throw, leave, toss) objects, debris, rubbish, on the ground

startle (V) – suddenly shock in surprise or alarm

Related page: Participial Modifiers 1 (cause v. receiver) amusing v. amused

Participle Modifier List (adjectival passives)

Completed vs. Ongoing

Participle Modifier List

COMPLETED
Past participle modifiers are pre-position (placed before the word it modifies) and are derived from reduced clauses. They have the properties of Adjectives. See note¹.
aged (wine, cheese)	fried (potatoes)
broken (glass)	exploded (fireworks)
boiled (milk)	frozen (water)
brewed (coffee)	grown (children)
changed (man)	loved (person)
closed (subject)	melted (ice)
cooked (food)	occupied (region)
crossed (lines)	rotten (fruit)
cut (flowers)	turned (page)
dripped (wax)	wound (watch)

ONGOING
Present participle modifiers are also pre-position and are derived from reduced clauses. They do not share all the properties of Adjectives. .
aging (parents)	frying (potatoes)
breaking (glass)	exploding (fireworks)
boiling (milk)	freezing (water)
brewing (coffee)	growing (children)
changing (times)	loving (person)
closing (argument)	melting (ice)
cooking (food)	occupying (force)
crossing (lines)	rotting (fruit)
cutting (remark)	turning (page)
dripping (wax)	winding (road)

¹ Note: Adjective properties include (1) can modify a noun (2) can complement a be verb, a static verb (e.g., become, seem, appear, act, look); (3) can be modified by a degree adverb (e.g., very, so, completely, partly).

Also see Irreg Verb Forms 1 and Irreg Verb Forms 2.

Function of Participle Modifiers

Examine whether it is a verb or an adjective?

Testing for properties of an adjective

PAST PARTICIPLE -ED
Usually, we can determine if a word is an adjective by testing its adjective properties. Can it (1) modify a noun, (2) follow a static verb (look, seem, become, appear, taste, act) (3) accept a degree adverb (very or too).
COMPLETED
CAN IT MODIFY A NOUN? YES
This is a roasted chicken. This is a delicious chicken. (a true adj.) The chicken is roasted. (modifier) The chicken is roasted. (passive verb)
CAN IT FOLLOW A STATIC VERB? YES
~The chicken appears roasted. looks, seems, tastes The chicken appears delicious. (a true adj.) Fix: The chicken appears to be roasted. (method or completeness)
CAN IT BE MODIFIED WITH VERY OR TOO? NO
*The chicken was very roasted. very or too The chicken was very delicious. (a true adj.) Fix: The chicken was over-done, well-done. (degree of cooking)
CONCLUSION
This -ed group shares one property (use in a clause) with adjectives. However, we cannot say these modifiers are truly "adjectives". They fall somewhere in between verb and adjective word categories. Words in this group (see words listed above) are problematic, half-half.

PRESENT PARTICIPLE -ING
With this group of verbs, both of the participle forms accept other be-like verbs, but do not accept the degree adverb very. These participles seem to fall somewhere in the middle of being verbs and adjectives.
ONGOING
CAN IT MODIFY A NOUN? YES
This is a roasting chicken. This is a delicious chicken. (a true adj.) The chicken is roasting. (modifier) The chicken is roasting. (progressive verb)
CAN IT FOLLOW A STATIC VERB? NO
*The chicken appears roasting. looks, seems, tastes [no] The chicken appears delicious. (a true adj.) Fix: The chicken appears to be roasting. (ongoing method of cooking)
CAN IT BE MODIFIED WITH VERY OR TOO? NO
*The chicken was very roasting. very or too [no] The chicken was very delicious. (a true adj.) Fix: The chicken was cooking fast(?) (rate of cooking)
CONCLUSION
This -ing group shares one property (use in a clause) with adjectives. However, we cannot say these modifiers are truly "adjectives". They fall somewhere in between verb and adjective word categories. Words in this group (see words listed above) are problematic.

*not used / ~ borderline use, requires a special context

Test for adjective properties includes (1) can it modify a noun (2) can it complement a be verb, a static verb (e.g., become, seem, appear, act, look); (3) can it be modified by a degree adverb (e.g., very, so, completely, partly). (Huddleston 533, 541)

property (N) – function or use in a clause; we group words together into a word category (Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition) depending on how similarly they function, are used in a clause. See Function vs. Category "How does Function differ from Category?

¹adjectival passive (Huddleston 16 §10.1.3)

Also see Gerund or Participle? Have / Be Finished

Participle Modifiers

State or Natural Quality

Completed vs. Natural Quality States

-ED — COMPLETED STATES
Past participle modifiers ending in -ed or -en may indicate the state of a process or activity completed by someone. (These are verb-like modifiers. Note that we cannot use very before these participle modifiers, which is true for adjectives.)
COMPLETED STATE
The recently spotted owl was making a nest. (an owl seen or located by someone usually with binoculars)
The black-eyed boxer walked into the ring. (an eye that was harmed by another fighter)
We made the pie with pitted cherries. (pits that were removed by us)
The freshly-washed dog sat in the sun. (a dog that was washed by someone)
Would you like some frozen yogurt. (yogurt that was frozen by someone)
She wore a shirt with rolled-up sleeves. (sleeves that were rolled up by someone)

-ED — NATURAL QUALITY OR STATE
Past participle modifiers may indicate the natural quality or state of the noun (color, pattern, condition, etc.)
NATURAL STATE
We saw a very spotted owl making a nest. (an owl with natural coloring including spots)
The black-eyed terrier walked into the ring. (a dog with naturally black eyes)
We made the sculpture from pitted wood. (wood with natural scars)
The short-haired dog sat in the sun. (a dog with naturally short hair)
Would you like to visit the frozen tundra? (a Antarctic region that is permanently frozen)
She wore a long-sleeved shirt. (a shirt with long-sleeves)

Participial Modifiers to Nouns

Ongoing Process or Function

Ongoing Process vs. Function

-ING – ONGOING PROCESS OR STATE
Present participle modifiers ending in -ing may indicate something still undergoing a process or activity. These are verb-like modifiers. Note that we cannot use very before these participle modifiers, which is true for adjectives.)
ONGOING QUALITY OR STATE
Don't awaken the sleeping dogs. (dogs that are sleeping)
We have a talking parrot (a parrot that talks.)
Look! It's a shooting star. ( a star that is shooting across the sky)
It's a slow-moving train. (a train that is moving slowly)
A hiking party was seen to the north of the volcano. (a group that is hiking)
The waiting parents were very worried. (parents that are waiting)

-ING – FUNCTION
Present participle modifiers ending in -ing may indicate the function of something. These modifiers are noun-like. [activity + noun] Also see Noun Modifiers.
FUNCTION
The pups are in their sleeping bag. (a bag for sleeping)
We have a talking machine. (a device for talking, a text reader)
He practices his rifle skills at the shooting range. (an area for target practice)
It's a moving van. (a truck for transporting households)
Mr. Hanson was wearing his hiking shoes (shoes that are for trekking.)
The doctor's waiting room was brightly decorated. (a room for waiting)

Participle Modifier Positioning

Before versus after the noun

Existing state versus resulting state

BEFORE NOUN—EXISTING STATE
A modifier placed before the noun is the more common position. The positioning of the modifier affects the meaning of the clause. A participle modifier placed before the noun describes the noun in its existing state.
He pushed the closed door. He likes his cleaned car.
George Washington implored Congress to end its squabbling. There was no future for a divided country. It is a divided country.
*Across the country thousands of protesters marched in the street; however, the President was an unmoved man.
Albert Einstein published over 300 scientific papers. His was an unmatched mind.

BEFORE NOUN—EXISTING STATE

A modifier placed before the noun is the more common position. The positioning of the modifier affects the meaning of the clause. A participle modifier placed before the noun describes the noun in its existing state.

He pushed the closed door.

He likes his cleaned car.

George Washington implored Congress to end its squabbling. There was no future for a divided country.

It is a divided country.

*Across the country thousands of protesters marched in the street; however, the President was an unmoved man.

Albert Einstein published over 300 scientific papers. His was an unmatched mind.

AFTER NOUN—RESULTING STATE
Sometimes the modifier may be placed after the noun if the verb or context permits it. A modifier placed after the noun describes the resulting state of the action expressed by the verb or by the context.
He pushed the door closed. "so that it is" He likes his car cleaned.
George Washington implored Congress to end its squabbling. There was no future for a country divided¹. Squabbling made² the country divided.
Across the country thousands of protesters marched in the street; however, the President was a man unmoved. The President was unmoved by the protests.
Albert Einstein published over 300 scientific papers. His was a mind unmatched.

AFTER NOUN—RESULTING STATE

Sometimes the modifier may be placed after the noun if the verb or context permits it. A modifier placed after the noun describes the resulting state of the action expressed by the verb or by the context.

He pushed the door closed. "so that it is"

He likes his car cleaned.

George Washington implored Congress to end its squabbling. There was no future for a country divided¹.

Squabbling made² the country divided.

Across the country thousands of protesters marched in the street; however, the President was a man unmoved.

The President was unmoved by the protests.

Albert Einstein published over 300 scientific papers. His was a mind unmatched.

*not used / ~awkward usage

¹The word "divided" can be explained as: (1) a passive verb in a reduced relative clause "that was being divided by squabbling", or (2) a modifier expressing a resulting state. "Squabbling was making the country divided." ("so that it [is/was/will be] divided")

²get / make – verbs get and make are used for causing something to happen. See Have / Get / Make.

Also see Resultative Adjectives.

Commonly Confused

Confusion and Solution

Commonly Confused (by native speakers)

CONFUSION
While olives could be described as 'pitted olives' – a natural quality or state of having pits – more often they are just called 'olives'. The modifier is unnecessary. Does a naturally grown olive without a pit occur?
Are these pitted olives?

CONFUSION

While olives could be described as 'pitted olives' – a natural quality or state of having pits – more often they are just called 'olives'. The modifier is unnecessary. Does a naturally grown olive without a pit occur?

olives

Are these pitted olives?

SOLUTION
Pitted olives are those which have had the pit removed by someone. Because of the confusion, some speakers clarify the terms by saying "olives with pits" or "olives without pits".
Or are these pitted olives?

SOLUTION

Pitted olives are those which have had the pit removed by someone. Because of the confusion, some speakers clarify the terms by saying "olives with pits" or "olives without pits".

pitted olives

Or are these pitted olives?

Also see Gerund or Participle?

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Grammar Notes (Advanced)

Traditional and Linguistic Description

TRADITIONAL DESCRIPTION
"The present participle serves as an adjective with an active meaing. The noun it modifies performs an action." "The past participle serves as an adjective with a passive meaning." (Azar "Participal Adjectives" 11-8) "When -ing forms are used like adjectives or adverbs, they have similar meanings to active verbs." "Most past participles have passive meanings when they are used like adjectives or adverbs. (Swan 408)

TRADITIONAL DESCRIPTION

"The present participle serves as an adjective with an active meaing. The noun it modifies performs an action."

"The past participle serves as an adjective with a passive meaning." (Azar "Participal Adjectives" 11-8)

"When -ing forms are used like adjectives or adverbs, they have similar meanings to active verbs."

"Most past participles have passive meanings when they are used like adjectives or adverbs. (Swan 408)

LINGUISTIC DESCRIPTION
The "participial adjective" functions as a modifier. The term "participle" is reserved for verbs. (Huddleston 3 §1.3-4) (1) complements copular and static verbs — be, looks, seem, appear, act He seems amusing. / He seems amused. (2) can be modified by a degree adverb very He is very amusing. / He is very amused. (Huddleston Adjectival Passives 16 §10.1.3) Gerund-Participle—Historically, the gerund and present participle of traditional grammar have different sources (gerunds were mostly nouns while participles were adjectives). Gerund-participle is a merged term for the -ing form that has multiple functions (uses). Current analysis does not support the traditional gerund vs. participle distinction. Instead, it is analyzed as one form, -ing, that functions in multiple ways. The train is approaching the platform. [with progressive auxiliary]; The train approaching the platform is on time. [post-position subject-noun modifier]; The approaching train was on time. [pre-position subject-noun modifier] (Huddleston 82, 1220)

LINGUISTIC DESCRIPTION

The "participial adjective" functions as a modifier. The term "participle" is reserved for verbs. (Huddleston 3 §1.3-4)

(1) complements copular and static verbs — be, looks, seem, appear, act

He seems amusing. / He seems amused.

(2) can be modified by a degree adverb very

He is very amusing. / He is very amused.

(Huddleston Adjectival Passives 16 §10.1.3)

Gerund-Participle—Historically, the gerund and present participle of traditional grammar have different sources (gerunds were mostly nouns while participles were adjectives). Gerund-participle is a merged term for the -ing form that has multiple functions (uses). Current analysis does not support the traditional gerund vs. participle distinction. Instead, it is analyzed as one form, -ing, that functions in multiple ways. The train is approaching the platform. [with progressive auxiliary]; The train approaching the platform is on time. [post-position subject-noun modifier]; The approaching train was on time. [pre-position subject-noun modifier] (Huddleston 82, 1220)

Clause; Word Functions; Finite / Nonfinite; NP –noun phrase; N – noun; VP – verb phrase; V – verb; Det. – determiner

Works Cited

Azar, Betty Schrampfer, and Stacy A. Hagen. Understanding and Using English Grammar. 4th ed., Pearson Education, 2009.
Huddleston, Rodney D., and Geoffrey K. Pullum. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge UP, 2002.
Swan, Michael. Practical English Usage. 3rd ed., Oxford UP, 2005.