First Hundred Years' War

This article is about the Anglo–French dispute from 1159 to 1259, sometimes known as the First Hundred Years' War. For the dispute from 1337 to 1453, see Hundred Years' War.

The First Hundred Years' War (French: Première guerre de Cent Ans; 1159–1259) was a series of conflicts and disputes during the High Middle Ages during which the House of Capet, rulers of the Kingdom of France, fought the House of Plantagenet (also known as the House of Anjou or the Angevins), rulers of the Kingdom of England. The conflict emerged over the Plantagenet-held Angevin Empire formed by Henry II of England which at its peak covered around half of the territory within France. The ongoing conflict between the two dynasties resulted in the gradual "reconquest" of most of their kingdom by the Capetians, and later, the Plantagenet's attempts to retake what they believed to be their rightful claims in western France.

First Hundred Years' War
Part of the Anglo-French Wars
An illumination from a 14th century AD manuscript of the "Grandes Chroniques de France", depicting a battle between John I of England (r. 1199 - 1216 AD) and Philip II of France (r. 1180 - 1223 AD). Both kings are recognizable by their coats of arms; Philip II is identified by three pale gold fleur-de-lis on a blue field, while John wears three pale gold lions on a red field.
Date 1159–1259 Location France, England Result Capetian victory Treaty of Paris Fall of the Angevin Empire The Capetian kings regain hegemony over their vassals Plantagenet claims to much of western France are abandoned Rise and confirmation of Capetian supremacy in regional politics; ascendancy of the Kingdom of France in Europe under Louis IX Territorial changes The Kingdom of France acquires Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Poitou, Thouars, Saintonge, Angoumois, Auvergne and Berry.
Belligerents
Kingdom of France	Angevin Empire Kingdom of England Duchy of Normandy Duchy of Aquitaine County of Anjou
Commanders and leaders
Louis VII of France Philip II Augustus Louis VIII of France Saint Louis	Henry II of England Richard the Lionheart John Lackland Henry III of England

The First Hundred Years' War is retroactively named after the Hundred Years' War from 1337 to 1453 as it is seen as a precursor to the later conflict, involving many of the same belligerents and dynasties. Like the "second" Hundred Years' War, this conflict was not a single war, but rather a historiographical periodisation to encompass dynastically related conflicts revolving around the dispute over the Angevin Empire.

Overview

Origins

During the conflict, the continental possessions of the Kings of England were considered to be more important than their insular ones, covering an area significantly greater than the territories controlled by the Kings of France who, however, were the overlords of the former in regards to the continental lands. Indeed, while the Capetian's nominal suzerainty extended far beyond the small domain of Île-de-France, the actual power they held over many of their vassals, including the Plantagenets, was weak. The Capetian kings sought to expand the authority they had over their own kingdom. These reasons, in combination with the Plantagenet's hold on the sovereign kingdom of England adding to their strength, can be seen as the primary reasons for the conflict.

Time frame

Although the time frame of the conflict is generally accepted to be from the beginning of the "40 years war" in 1159 to the 1259 Treaty of Paris, a few preliminary and residual instances of conflict have occurred between the two dynasties such as the Capetian invasion of Plantagenet-held Duchy of Aquitaine in 1152, or during the Gascon War starting in 1294, which were both initiated for mostly the same underlying reasons as are seen for the rest of the conflict. They are, however, both relatively minor, and the latter conflict is sufficiently distant in time to be considered separate from the overall conflict. It is also reasonable to extend the start of the conflict to 1154, when the formation of the Angevin Empire can be seen as the true root of the conflict, rather than the dispute over Toulouse, which merely served as the justification for military action. The Hundred Year's War from 1337 to 1453 is also not accepted as part of the same conflict due to the differing casus belli used to initiate the war, and the fact that the two families involved were cadet branches of the Capetian, and eventually, Plantagenet dynasties (Valois and Lancastrian respectively).

The conflict can generally be divided into three distinct phases. The first phase saw the Angevin Empire maintaining dominance over their Capetian rivals. In the second phase, the Angevin Empire experienced a sudden collapse at the hands of the Capetians, culminating in a Capetian invasion of England. The third phase occurred with the Capetian kings now dominant on the continent, while the Plantagenets sought to reclaim the Angevin Empire through various means.

Warfare

The conflict occurred during a period when the majority of warfare was characterized by sieges, siege assaults, siege reliefs, raids, and skirmishes. This was largely due to two factors: the feudal structure of both kingdoms which hindered the formation of professional standing armies, and the defensive advantage provided by the widespread presence of castles. Consequently, warfare was more localized in nature and large pitched battles were relatively rare due to their typically decisive outcomes. However, this did not lessen the brutality or the death toll. In fact, this style of conflict spread the burden of war across a broader spectrum of society, impacting people of various statuses. While soldiers were often drawn from more distant regions, most combat involved the immediate stakeholders—local nobility and populace alike. As the Plantagenets lost territory on the continent, their ability to wage war became increasingly strained. They had to rely on hired mercenaries for deeper offensive campaigns into France. This is all in contrast to the later "second" Hundred Years' War, during which the infantry revolution gained momentum, allowing for pitched battles to become more common, and the growing use of gunpowder began to undermine the strategic importance of castles.

Significance

The significance of the conflict is often viewed in the context of the later Hundred Years' War, which spanned from 1337 to 1453. Ironically, the intermarriages between the two dynasties—resulting from various peace settlements from the conflict—played a direct role in the Plantagenets' dynastic claim to the French throne, ultimately triggering the more famous Hundred Years' War. The French invasion of England in 1216 also played a significant role in the rise of English nationalism, reinforcing a collective identity that distinguished the English from their French adversaries. The enduring fear of another French invasion in the 14th century further galvanized the lower classes, prompting widespread military preparedness, particularly in the use of the longbow, as a means of defending the realm.

After the Plantagenet claims to western France ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1259, the English kings, in regards to their few remaining possessions on the continent, would remain vassals to the French kings and would become more English in nature. The Capetians were also able to consolidate their power, making the kingdom of France the wealthiest and most powerful state in medieval Western Europe.

Angevin ascendancy under Henry II: 1154-1189

Main article: Henry II of England

Main article: Revolt of 1173–1174

Formation of the Angevin Empire

Contemporary miniature of Henry II from the Topographia Hibernica, c. 1186–1188

In 1150, amidst a period of civil war in England over the succession of the crown known as the Anarchy, Henry II Plantagenet, a claimant to the throne by right of his mother Empress Matilda, received the Duchy of Normandy from his father Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou. In response to the looming threat of a united England, Normandy, and Anjou, Louis VII Capet of France put forward King Stephen of England's son, Eustace, as a pretender to the duchy of Normandy and launched a military campaign to remove Henry from the province. Peace was made in 1151 in which Henry accepted Louis as his feudal lord in response for recognition as the duke of Normandy.

When Geoffrey died in September 1151, Henry inherited the County of Anjou and Maine. On 18 May 1152 he became Duke of Aquitaine in right of his wife by marrying Eleanor of Aquitaine in Poitiers after her first marriage with Louis VII of France was annulled at the Council of Beaugency. As a result of this union, Henry had now possessed a larger proportion of France than Louis. Tensions between the two were revived. Louis organized a coalition against Henry including Stephen of England and Henry's younger brother Geoffrey, among a group of other nobles in France. Fighting broke out along the borders of Normandy, and Louis launched a campaign into Aquitaine. In England, Stephen laid siege to Wallingford Castle which was held by Henry's forces at the time. Henry responded by stabilizing the Norman border, pillaging the Vexin and then striking south into Anjou against Geoffrey, capturing the castle of Montsoreau. Louis soon fell ill and withdrew the campaign, and Geoffrey was forced to come to terms with Henry.

On 6 November 1153, by the Treaty of Wallingford (or Treaty of Winchester), he was recognized as the successor of King Stephen of England. When the latter died on 25 October 1154, he ascended the throne of England under the name of Henry II. On Sunday, December 19, he was crowned at Westminster Abbey. This marked the beginning of what is referred to by historians in the modern day as the Angevin Empire. The resources at the disposal of Henry now far exceeded those of the king of France. In 1154 and in 1158, the two kings made a series of agreements to quell the tensions, including the concession of some minor territory to Henry, and the betrothing of Henry's son, Young Henry, to Louis' daughter, Margaret.

Outbreak of the Forty Years' War

The Angevin Empire in 1154 in shades of red, the Crown lands of France (Ile-de-France) in dark blue

In 1156, Henry seized the viscounty of Thouars, thereby controlling communications between the northwest and south-west France. In 1158, he annexed Nantes from the semi-independent duchy of Brittany. In 1159, Henry continued to act on his expansionist policy by setting his eyes on the county Toulouse which he claimed on Eleanor's behalf. When Henry and Louis discussed the matter of Toulouse, Henry left believing that he had the French king's support for military intervention. Henry invaded Toulouse and laid siege to the city by the same name, only to find Louis visiting Raymond V, Count of Toulouse in the city. Henry was not prepared to directly attack Louis, who was still his feudal lord, and withdrew, contenting himself with ravaging the surrounding county, seizing various castles and taking the province of Quercy. The episode proved to be a long-running point of dispute between the two kings and the chronicler William of Newburgh called the ensuing conflict with Toulouse a "forty years' war."

Despite initial attempts to repair relations, diplomacy broke down. Henry seized the Vexin and forced a marriage between Young Henry and Margaret. Theobald V, Count of Blois, mobilized his forces on behalf of Louis, however, Henry responded with a surprise attack on Chaumont, capturing Theobald's castle after a successful siege. Another peace was negotiated in the autumn of 1161, followed by a second peace treaty in 1162 overseen by Pope Alexander III.

Despite this, Louis consolidated his position by strengthening his alliances and became more vigorous in opposing Henry's increasing power in Europe. Meanwhile, Henry strengthened his grip on the Duchy of Brittany and secured it for his son Geoffrey. Elsewhere, Henry attempted to seize the Auvergne, and continued to apply pressure on Toulouse in a military campaign.

In 1167, the two kings were at war once again. Louis allied himself with the Welsh, Scots, and Bretons, and attacked Normandy. Henry responded by attacking Chaumont-sur-Epte, where Louis kept his main military arsenal, burning the town to the ground and forcing Louis to abandon his allies and make a private truce. After the short war, Henry continued his campaign against the Bretons, and would later see the capitulation of Toulouse.

Revolt over the Angevin inheritance

Although Henry II wielded much stronger authority within his lands and commanded far greater resources than his Capetian rivals, there was a considerable division in his territories between his sons. Eager to inherit, his three eldest sons rebelled against him in 1173 with the help of Louis of France. Young Henry and Louis invaded the Vexin intending to reach the Norman capital, Rouen. Henry, who had been in France in order to receive absolution for the Becket affair, secretly traveled back to England to order an offensive on the rebels, and on his return counter-attacked Louis's army, massacring many of them and pushing the survivors back across the Norman border. In January 1174 the forces of Young Henry and Louis attacked again, threatening to push through into central Normandy. The attack failed and the fighting paused while the winter weather set in. Henry returned to England to face a potential invasion by the Flemish. This ruse allowed Philip, Count of Flanders, and Louis to invade Normandy and reach Rouen, laying siege to the city. However, the defeat and capture of William of Scotland who led another invasion of England in the north allowed Henry to return to Normandy in August. Henry's forces fell upon the French army just before the final French assault on the city began; pushed back into France, Louis requested peace talks, bringing an end to the conflict.

Tension resurfaced between the two kings in the late 1170s over the control of Berry. To put additional pressure on Louis, Henry mobilised his armies for war. The papacy intervened and, probably as Henry had planned, the two kings were encouraged to sign a non-aggression treaty in September 1177, under which they promised to undertake a joint crusade. The ownership of the Auvergne and parts of Berry were put to an arbitration panel, which reported in favour of Henry; Henry followed up this success by purchasing La Marche from the local count. This expansion of Henry's empire once again threatened French security, and promptly put the new peace at risk.

Philip Augustus' first attempts at conquest

In 1180, Louis was succeeded by his son, Philip II. In 1186, Philip demanded that he be given the Duchy of Brittany and insisted that Henry order his son Richard the Lionheart to withdraw from Toulouse, where he had been sent with an army to apply new pressure on Count Raymond, Philip Augustus's uncle. Philip Augustus threatened to invade Normandy if this did not happen and reopened the question of the Vexin. Philip Augustus invaded Berry and Henry mobilised a large army which confronted the French at Châteauroux, before papal intervention brought a truce. During the negotiations, Philip Augustus suggested to Richard that they should ally against Henry, marking the start of a new strategy to divide the father and son.

In 1187, Richard's renewed campaign into Toulouse undermined the truce between Henry and Philip. Both kings mobilized large forces in anticipation of war. In a peace conference held in November 1188, Richard publicly changed sides. It is also in 1188 that the symbolic "cutting of the elm" took place in which Philip ordered the felling of an elm tree on the Norman border, under which both sides traditionally negotiated, signaling his intent to show no mercy to the English. By 1189, the conference broke up with war as Philip and Richard launched a surprise attack on Henry. Henry was caught by surprise at Le Mans but made a forced march north to Alençon, from where he could escape into the safety of Normandy. Suddenly, Henry turned back south towards Anjou, against the advice of his officials. At Ballan, the two sides negotiated once again, resulting in the Treaty of Azay-le-Rideau on 4 July 1189, and the ill-stricken Henry had to recognize his son Richard as his sole heir. Two days later, Henry succumbed to his illness, possibly exacerbated by the betrayal of his son John.

Preservation of the Angevin Empire under Richard the Lionheart: 1189-1199

Third Crusade and Philip Augustus' betrayal

Philip Augustus (left) and Richard the Lionheart (right) at the Third Crusade

In 3 September 1189, Richard the Lionheart was crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey inheriting his father's vast territories and still commanding much more power than the Capetian monarchy, remaining no less a threat to the Capetians. After the coronation, Richard immediately left for the Third Crusade alongside King Philip.

Returning early from the crusade in December 1191, Philip Augustus encouraged the rebellion of John Lackland against his brother Richard and profited from the absence of the latter to negotiate a very advantageous treaty for France. Hoping to acquire the English crown with the support of the King of France, John paid homage in 1193. The Château de Gisors fell to the French in the same year. Then, as Philip Augustus attacked the possessions of the Plantagenets, John gave to the French king eastern Normandy (except Rouen), Le Vaudreuil, Verneuil and Évreux, by written agreement, in January 1194. By his military and diplomatic finesse, Philip kept his rival at bay.

Richard continued the crusade after the departure and seeming betrayal of Philip: he retook the main Palestinian ports up to Jaffa, and restored the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem although the city itself eluded him. He eventually negotiated a five-year truce with Saladin, likely driven by the urgent matters awaiting him in his own kingdom, and set sail back for England in October 1192. Winter storms overtook him. Forced to stay at Corfu, he was captured by Duke Leopold V of Austria, who put him in the hands of the German Emperor Henry VI, his enemy. Despite Richard's best efforts during a trial convened by Henry, the emperor continued to detain him, possibly at the request of Philip of France. For the release of Richard, the emperor asked for a ransom of 100,000 marks, plus 50,000 marks to help him conquer Sicily.

Richard's retaliation against Philip

Richard was finally released on 2 February 1194. His mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, paid two-thirds of the ransom, one hundred thousand marks, the balance to be paid later. Upon his return to England, John was forgiven by his brother and pardoned. Richard's reaction to the Capetian invasion was immediate. Determined to resist Philip's schemes on contested Angevin lands such as the Vexin and Berry, Richard poured all his military expertise and vast resources into the war on the French King. He organised an alliance with his father-in-law, King Sancho VI of Navarre, who raided Philip's lands from the south. In May 1194, at the head of an English army dispatched from Portsmouth, Richard and William Marshal broke Philip's ongoing siege of Verneuil, which was initially promised to Philip by John, and harassed the retreating French army, capturing their siege engines in the process. Philip struck back by sacking the city of Évreux held by John and Robert of Leicester, the latter of which would soon after be captured by the French while attempting to retake his own castle in Pacy.

In the Battle of Fréteval, Richard was able to further push back Philip who barely survived, almost drowning in a river. As a result of this battle, Richard captured a wealth of treasure and numerous written records from Philip, which he secured in the Tower of London and would use against Philip in the wars to come. Richard then moved south to capture Angoulême from an rebellious alliance between Geoffrey de Rancon and the count Ademar of Angouleme. In mid-July, while Richard was distracted with this rebellion, Philip won a thorough victory against an Anglo-Norman army led by John and William d'Aubigny of Arundel who had recently taken Vaudreuil, a key fortress on the Norman border. It was in August 1194 that Richard decreed for a 'nationalized' system of tournaments to be held in England in order to train the knights of his kingdom to be fiercer in war. As the campaign season was drawing to an end, the two kings agreed to the Truce of Tillières.

The war resumed in 1195 when Philip besieged Vaudreuil after learning that Henry VI of the Holy Roman Empire was conspiring with Richard to invade France, effectively nullifying the truce. According to English chroniclers, Richard met with Philip, who appeared to be stalling for time with negotiations while his engineers were secretly undermining the walls. When the walls suddenly collapsed, Richard realized Philip's deception and ordered his forces to attack the French. Philip narrowly escaped, and Richard captured what remained of Vaudreuil.

After the events at Vaudreuil, Richard besieged Arques. Philip now pressed his advantage in northeastern Normandy, where he, at the head of 600 knights, conducted a raid at Dieppe, burning the English ships in the harbor while repulsing an attack by Richard at the same time. Philip now marched southward into the Berry region. His primary objective was the fortress of Issoudun, which had just been captured by Richard's mercenary commander and right hand man, Mercadier. John also captured Gamaches located in the Vexin around this time. The French king took the town and was besieging the castle when Richard stormed through French lines and made his way in to reinforce the garrison, while at the same time, another army was approaching Philip's supply lines. Against expectation, Richard laid down his arms and negotiated with Philip, paying homage to him in the process. Philip's situation also became precarious as the arriving Angevin reinforcements meant that Richard's forces began to outnumber his own. As a result, Philip gave up most of his recent conquests in the Treaty of Louviers in December 1195. During this relatively longer period of peace, Richard began construction on the Château de Gaillard to fortify Normandy from further invasions which was mostly complete by 1198. The castle was ahead of its time, featuring innovations that would be adopted in castle architecture nearly a century later.

Resumption of war

Political and military conditions seemed promising for Philip at the start of 1196 when Richard's nephew Arthur I, Duke of Brittany ended up in his hands. In July 1196, Philip besieged Aumâle at the head of a large army, including a contingent led by Count Baldwin of Flanders. Richard countered the manuever by capturing Nonancourt, then marching to Aumâle to relieve the siege. The English attacked the French at their camp around the castle, but were pushed back. Aumâle would surrender a week later. The year continued to go badly for Richard who was wounded in the knee by a crossbow bolt while beseiging Gaillon, and Nonancourt was recaptured following the battle at Aumâle.

However, Philip's fortunes would not last. The situation slowly turned against Philip over the course of the next three years. In October 1196, Richard negotiated with Raymond VI to bring an end to the ongoing 40-year war between Aquitaine and Toulouse, thus securing Richard's southern border. As part of the settlement, Raymond married Richard's sister, Joan. Richard also won over Count Baldwin, switching sides in 1197. The same year, the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI died and was succeeded by Otto IV, Richard's nephew, who put additional pressure on Philip and threatened an invasion into France. Finally, many Norman lords were switching sides and returning to Richard's camp.

The Battle of Gisors, 1198, between Philip II Augustus (left) and Richard the Lionheart (right) (Chroniques de Saint-Denis (ou de France), 14th century)

In 1197 Richard invaded the Vexin, taking Courcelles-sur-Seine and Boury-en-Vexin before returning to Dangu. Philip, believing that Courcelles was still holding out, went to its relief. Discovering what was happening, Richard decided to attack the French king's forces, catching Philip by surprise, resulting in an English victory at the Battle of Gisors (sometimes called Courcelles). In this battle, Richard reportedly yelled "Dieu et mon droit" in battle, meaning "God and my right" signifying that Richard was no longer willing to pay homage to Philip for his domain in France. Philip's forces withdrew and attempted to reach the fortress of Gisors. Bunched together, the French knights with king Philip attempted to cross the Epte River on a bridge that promptly collapsed under their weight, almost drowning Philip in the process. He was dragged out of the river and shut himself up in Gisors, having successfully evaded Richard and reinforced the fortress.

Philip soon planned a new offensive, launching destructive raids into Normandy and again targeting Évreux. Richard countered Philip's thrust with a counterattack in the Vexin, while Mercadier led a raid on Abbeville. The problem was compounded by the Flemish invasion of Artois. By autumn 1198, Richard had regained almost all that had been lost in 1193. With the warring sides in a deadlock, Philip offered a truce so that discussions could begin towards a more permanent peace, with the offer that he would return all of the territories except for Gisors. The new Pope Innocent III, who wanted to set up a new crusade, also pushed the two kings to negotiate.

In mid-January 1199, the two kings met for a final meeting, Richard standing on the deck of a boat, and Philip on his horse on the banks of the Seine River. Shouting terms at each other, they could not reach an agreement on the terms of a permanent truce, but they did agree to further mediation, which resulted in a five-year truce that held. The situation ended abruptly. During the siege of the castle of Châlus (Limousin) held by a rebel garrison in 1199, Richard was hit by another crossbow bolt in the left shoulder, near his neck. He succumbed to his injuries a few days later, on April 6, forty-one years old and at the height of his glory.

Fall of the Angevin Empire under John Lackland: 1199-1214

Main article: French invasion of Normandy (1202–1204)

Main article: Anglo-French War (1213–1214)

Dispute over the Angevin succession

John Lackland succeeded his brother Richard. The succession was not unopposed: facing John was his nephew, the young Arthur of Brittany (12 years old), son of his elder brother Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany who died in 1186. Philip Augustus supported this rivalry, and while he had taken the position of John against Richard, this time he took the position of Arthur against John. Philip received the homage of Arthur, as Duke of Brittany, in spring 1199 for the counties of Anjou, Maine and Touraine. This allowed him to negotiate from a position of strength with John Lackland; thus the Treaty of Le Goulet was created in 1200 which aimed to settle the claims the Angevin kings of England had on French lands, with the exception of Aquitaine, in order to end the constant dispute over Normandy. The treaty was sealed by the marriage of Louis of France and Blanche of Castile, John's niece.

However, the hostilities did not cease. Philip again took the cause of Arthur, and summoned John his vassal under the Treaty of Le Goulet for his actions in Aquitaine and Tours. John, naturally, did not present himself, and the court of France pronounced the confiscation of his fiefs.

In the spring of 1202 Philip attacked Normandy while Arthur attacked Poitou, but the young duke was surprised by King John in the Battle of Mirebeau, and taken prisoner with his troops as well as his sister Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany. Arthur of Brittany disappeared in the following months while in captivity, probably murdered in early 1203. Philip then provided support to vassals of Arthur and resumed his actions in Normandy in spring 1203. Philip ordered Eleanor be released, which John eventually refused.

Fall of Normandy and Poitou

An artists impression of how the siege of Château-Gaillard in 1204 would have looked.

Around the turn of the 13th century, warfare in Normandy was defined by slow but steady advances due to the high density of castles in the region. In September 1203, Philip dismantled the system of Norman castles around Château Gaillard, notably taking Le Vaudreuil. Once the immediate area around the castle was secured, Philip began the Siege of Château Gaillard. An army led by John of England and William Marshal fell upon the besieging French army in an attempt to relieve the siege. Though the attack was initially successful, the convoluted battle plan led to the English being unable to achieve their objective. The French counterattack routed the English forces, leading John to retreat and invade Brittany instead in order to bait the French into withdrawing from the siege. Philip, understanding the importance of the castle for securing the rest of Normandy, refused to lift the siege. The defending garrison of the castle led by Roger De Lacy continued to stubbornly resist French advances, reportedly going as far as using Greek fire on the enemy, until 6 March 1204 when the attackers finally reached the inner bailey of the castle.

Normandy was now open for the taking. Philip pressed his advantage; Falaise, Caen, Bayeux, and Rouen surrendered 24 June 1204, despairing the aid of John Lackland, who did not come. Arques and Verneuil fell immediately after, completing the success of Philip, who had conquered Normandy in two years of campaign. Philip then turned to the Loire Valley, where he took Poitiers in August 1204, and Loches and Chinon in 1205. The failures of John were not received well by the nobility back in England.

Consolidation of Capetian conquests

Territorial evolution of France under Philip Augustus

John and Philip finally agreed to a truce in Thouars, on 13 October 1206. For Philip Augustus, it was then necessary to stabilize these rapid conquests. Since 1204, Philip published an order imposing the use of Norman, instead of Angevin, currency. Philip Augustus also built the castle of Rouen, an imposing fortress of Philippian style and the locus of Capetian power in Normandy.

From 1206 to 1212, Philip Augustus strove to strengthen his territorial conquests. Capetian domination was accepted in Champagne, Brittany, and Auvergne, but the counties of Boulogne and Flanders remain reluctant. Renaud de Dammartin, Count of Boulogne, became a primary concern. Despite the favors of Philip Augustus, who married in 1210 his son Philip Hurepel to Matilda, daughter of Renaud, he continued to negotiate with the enemy camp. The suspicions of Philip took shape when the count began to fortify Mortain, in western Normandy. In 1211, Philip went on the offensive, taking Mortain, Aumale and Dammartin. Renaud de Dammartin fled to the county of Bar, and was no longer an immediate threat.

Anti-French coalition

The incredible success of Philip Augustus soon brought all of his rivals to unite against him. The opposition formed in 1212. John allied with his nephew, Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor, who was currently facing an internal crisis within the Empire in which the French supported Otto's opposition, Philip of Swabia. Renaud de Dammartin was the real architect of the coalition. He had nothing to lose when he went to Frankfurt to seek the support of Otto and England, where he paid homage to John. Hostilities between Philip and John resumed immediately.

At the same time, the first operations of the Albigensian Crusade, led by French barons, saw the quarrel between Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse and the Crusaders. Philip Augustus refused to intervene and focused on the English danger. He gathered his barons in Soissons on 8 April 1213, ordering his son Louis to lead the expedition against England and won the support of all his vassals, except one, Ferdinand, Count of Flanders, whom he himself had installed two years earlier. Philip then sought further support, particularly with Henry I, Duke of Brabant. After some hesitation, Pope Innocent III on the other hand chose to support John, which provided moral support, but no direct military advantage. The preparations of the conflict persisted: the initial project of Philip, who wanted to invade England, was thwarted when his fleet was attacked by the enemy coalition at the Battle of Damme in May 1213. The following month saw Philip and Louis strive against the counties of Boulogne and Flanders. The northern cities were almost all devastated.

1214 campaign of John Lackland in the west

King John of England in battle with the Francs (left), Prince Louis VIII of France on the march (right). (British Library, Royal 16 G VI f. 385)

John crossed to Aquitaine with his force at a very unusual season. Sailing from Portsmouth, they landed at La Rochelle on 15 February 1214. He called the feudal levies of Guyenne to reinforce him and marched into Poitou, where he was joined by Hugh IX of Lusignan and by Hervé, Count of Nevers. Making a great display of his troops, John overran Poitou in March, then crossed the Loire and invaded Anjou, the ancient patrimony of his house. As he expected, the King of France marched to check the invasion, taking with him his son, Prince Louis, and the pick of the feudal levies of his realm. Moving by Saumur and Chinon, he endeavoured to cut off John's line of retreat towards Aquitaine. However, abandoning Anjou, the English king hastened rapidly southward, and, evading the enemy, reached Limoges on 3 April. By those operations, John had drawn Philip far to the south. Philip, however, refused to pursue John any farther and, after ravaging the revolted districts of Poitou, marched homewards. At Châteauroux, he handed over a few thousand troops to his son and returned with the rest to the north.

John was still determined to tie down as large a force as possible. When he heard Philip had departed, he at once faced about and re-entered Poitou in May. Rapidly passing the Loire, he again invaded Anjou and, after subduing many towns, laid siege to the strong castle of Roche-au-Moines on 19 June. He had lain in front of it for fifteen days when Prince Louis marched to it with his relief army, reinforced by Angevin levies under William des Roches and Amaury I de Craon. However, despite his significantly larger army, the English king was not prepared to fight, as he deemed his Poitevin allies, as well as his hired mercenaries, to be untrustworthy. He recrossed the Loire on July 3 and retreated to La Rochelle, with his rearguard suffering immensely at the hands of the French forces in the process. These actions constituted what is referred to as the Battle of Roche-au-Moines. But the coalition was not yet lost: everything depended on the eastern theatre of the war.

Battle of Bouvines

Battle of Bouvines: Philip faces Otto IV (Grandes Chroniques de France, 14th century)

The final confrontation between the armies of Philip and the coalition led by Otto, was now inevitable, after several weeks of approach and avoidance. Otto's army had a sizeable English contingent on the right-wing led by William Longespée, the illegitmate son of Henry II and half brother to John. On Sunday 27 July 1214 the army of Philip, pursued by the coalition, arrived at Bouvines to cross the bridge over the Marque. At that Sunday, the prohibition to fight was absolute for Christians, but Otto decided to go on with the offensive, hoping to surprise the enemy while crossing the bridge. Philip's army was greatly surprised from the rear, but he quickly reorganized his troops before they could be engaged on the bridge. They quickly turned against the coalition. The French right wing fought against the Flemish knights, led by Ferdinand. At the center where fiercest of the fighting occurred, Philip and Otto fought in person. In the cavalry melee, Philip was unseated, and he fell, but his knights protected him, offered him a fresh horse, and the king resumed the assault until Otto ordered a retreat. Finally, on the left, the supporters of Philip ended the career of Renaud de Dammartin who was leading the knights from Brabant, as well as Longespée, both of whom were captured by the French after a long resistance. Fate had turned in favor of Philip, despite the numerical inferiority of his troops. The victory was decisive: the Emperor fled, Philip's men captured 130 prisoners, including five counts, including the reviled traitor, Renaud of Dammartin, and the Count of Flanders, Ferdinand.

Capetian success

The coalition was dissolved after its defeat. On 18 September 1214, in Chinon, Philip signed a truce for five years. John returned to England in 1214. By the Treaty of Chinon, John Lackland abandoned all his possessions to the north of the Loire: Berry, Touraine, Maine and Anjou returned to the royal domain, which then covered a third of France, greatly enlarged and free from external threat. John acknowledged Alix as duchess of Brittany and gave up the claim of Eleanor, who would end up in prison in 1241. The Capetian royal domain and the vast area north of the Loire enjoyed repose under the terms of the truce concluded in Chinon in 1215; originally for five years and then extended in 1220 with the guarantee of Louis, an association which marked the beginning of Philip's transition to his son and heir.

Invasion of England and further conquests in France under Louis the Lion: 1215-1224

Main article: First Barons' War

Main article: Siege of La Rochelle (1224)

Intervention in the First Barons' War

The extent of the French, Scottish, Welsh, and rebel occupation of England in May 1217 during the First Barons' War. Louis the Lion's occupation can be seen in the south-east, overlapping London, in light red.

The victory was complete on the continent, but Philip's ambitions did not stop there. Indeed, Philip Augustus wanted to go further against John of England. He thus argued that John should be deprived of the throne, recalling his betrayal of Richard in 1194, and the murder of his nephew Arthur. Arguing a questionable interpretation also of the genealogy of his wife Blanche of Castile, Prince Louis "the Lion" of France, at the request of the English barons in rebellion during the First Baron's War, led an expedition to attempt the conquest of England. The landing took place in Kent on May 1216. At the head of numerous troops (1,200 knights, plus many English rebels), Louis conquered much of the English kingdom, including London, where he settled and proclaimed himself as King of England with the support of the English rebel barons. Only Windsor, Lincoln and Dover resisted and were subsequently besieged by Louis' forces. But despite the warm welcome to Louis by a majority of English bishops, the support of the pope to John remained firm, and Louis was excommunicated. The attitude of Philip Augustus towards this expedition was ambiguous; he did not officially support it and even criticized his son's strategy for the conquest of England, but it is unlikely that he had not given his consent to it, at least privately.

English resurgence

An illustration by Matthew Paris accompanying an account of the Second Battle of Lincoln

Finally, John died suddenly of illness on 19 October 1216. The former allies of John then hastily crowned his son Henry III, aged nine. Pope Innocent III also just died, but his successor Pope Honorius III continued to defend the loyalists. The bishops soon withdrew their support from Louis and the rebels.

On 6 December 1216 Louis took Hertford Castle but allowed the defending knights to leave with their horses and weapons. He then took Berkhamsted Castle in late December, which again allowed the royal garrison to withdraw honourably with their horses and weapons. In early 1217, the prince decided to return to France for reinforcements. He had to fight his way to the south coast through loyalist resistance in Kent and Sussex, losing part of his force in an ambush at Lewes, with the remainder pursued to Winchelsea and were saved from starvation only by the arrival of a French fleet. Upon his return to England, his forces were decisively routed by William Marshal's troops at the Battle of Lincoln. The French attempted to send reinforcements and supplies across the English Channel, but were obliterated in another decisive battle in the Battle of Sandwich. Louis agreed to negotiate peace in June and renounced his claims to the throne of England by the Treaty of Lambeth on 11 September 1217, while getting in return a large sum of money and reconciliation with the Church.

French supremacy in the later reign of Philip Augustus

If the conquests by arms ceased, Philip nevertheless extended his influence by taking advantage of problematic cases of inheritance. This was the case in Champagne on the accession of Theobald IV, which allowed him to reestablish his suzerainty. This was the case especially when the king recovered certain lands such as Issoudun, Bully, Alençon, Clermont-en-Beauvaisis and Ponthieu.

The prosperity of the kingdom at the end of the reign of Philip Augustus is an established fact. It is estimated the annual surplus of the treasury was 25,210 livres in November 1221. On that date, the Treasury had in its coffers 157,036 livres, more than 80% of the total ordinary annual income of the monarchy. The testament of Philip Augustus, written in September 1222, confirms these figures, since the sum of its legacy amounted to 790,000 livres of Paris, nearly four years of revenue. This will was written while Philip was in a poor state of health and feared death. It will eventually occur ten months later.

While he was in Pacy, Philip decided to attend an ecclesiastical assembly in Paris to prepare for a new crusade against the advice of his doctors. He did not survive the fatigue of travel and died on 14 July 1223 at Mantes. His body was brought to Paris, and his funeral was quickly organized, in Saint-Denis, in the presence of the great men of the kingdom. For the first time, the body of the King of France dressed in all the regalia is exposed for the veneration of the people before his burial in a solemn rite based on that of the kings of England.

Poitou War

Now crowned king of France, Louis VIII claimed that the English court had not fulfilled all the conditions of the treaty of 1217. Taking advantage of the minority of Henry III, he decided to seize the last English possessions in France.

A letter from the mayor of Bordeaux informing Henry III of Louis VIII's invasion of Gascony in 1224

In 1224, Louis invaded Poitou. Henry's army in the region was poorly supplied and lacked support from the Poitevin barons, many of whom felt abandoned during the years of Henry's minority; as a result, the province fell quickly. Further, Philip took the cities of Saintonge, Périgord, Angoumois, and part of Bordeaux. Louis seized all territory as far as the Garonne, in a quick campaign. To control the trade of the region, the French laid siege to the strategic port city of La Rochelle. Expecting Henry of England to return with a relief force, the city's garrison held out against Louis for a month and engaged in several military confrontations. After it became clear that no relief force was coming, the garrison surrendered to Louis' forces. After the campaign, Louis focused his attention on capturing numerous cities in Languedoc as part of a separate conflict. While returning from the campaign, Louis became ill with dysentery, and died on 8 November 1226, thus ending his short reign.

Efforts to restore the Angevin Empire and final settlement under Henry III: 1225-1259

Main article: English invasion of France (1230)

Main article: Saintonge War

Main article: Second Barons' War

Reclamation of Gascony

By the end of the minority of Henry III in 1226 in addition to the resolution of residual conflict from the First Barons' War, the king would prioritize the reconquest of what he saw as his "inheritance" and "legal claims" over the former Angevin territories now occupied by the Capetians. In 1225 Richard of Cornwall, Henry's brother and recently styled Count of Poitou, was commissioned by the English parliament to lead a campaign to recapture Gascony. By 1227, the campaigns were successful, likely in part due to the death of Louis VIII halfway through the endeavour and being succeeded by his son Louis IX who was still in his minority. Gascony would remain in Plantagenet hands for over another 200 years.

1230 campaign of Henry III

After the untimely death of Louis VIII of France, much of the French nobility within former Angevin lands who still held strong ties with the Plantagenets rebelled against the new king Louis IX. It is within this context that in 1228, a group of the rebels called upon Henry to reclaim his sought-after territories. Among these rebels was the Duke of Brittany, Peter de Dreux. By 1230, after a long period of preparation for the invasion, Henry embarked with an army from Portsmouth and eventually landed in Brittany. The French army shadowed much of the English army's movements in an attempt to repel them, however the English were able to campaign as far south as Bordeaux, capturing a few castles, notably taking the castle of Mirebeau, and receiving homage from many lords on the way. However, the campaign was mostly ineffectual and Henry was forced to re-embark for his kingdom by the end of the campaign season, landing at Portsmouth on 27 October 1230 and having left a small force under Peter of Brittany and Ranulf de Blondeville, Earl of Chester, to act against the French in Normandy and Brittany. A 4 year truce was agreed upon.

Loss of Brittany

In 1232, a civil war broke out in England between Peter des Roches, leading the English government and backed by the Poitevin faction, and the rebels led by Richard Marshal, who argued that Henry III had failed to protect the legal rights of the nobility under des Roches' administration. Henry struggled to gain a clear military advantage and became concerned that Louis of France might seize the opportunity to invade Brittany—as their truce was set to expire in 1234—while Henry was preoccupied with the conflict at home. By the time the truce with France ended, Henry agreed to make peace in the civil war. Despite this, Duke Peter of Brittany soon faced French military pressure. Henry could only send a small force to assist his vassal, and Brittany fell to the French in November. With this defeat, the Plantagenets lost their remaining control over northern France. After the dismissal of des Roches, Henry personally ruled the kingdom for the next 24 years, rather than relying on senior ministers.

Saintonge War

King Louis IX the Saint (depicted on a white horse) in the first phase of the Battle of Taillebourg 21st July 1242. (Eugène Delacroix, 1837)

In 1241, another dispute arose out of France as a result of the appointment of king Louis' cousin, Alphonse, as the Count of Poitiers, a title still nominally held in contention by Richard of Cornwall. Hugh X Lusignan "le Brun", Seigneur de Luisignan and Count of La Manche, fearing further encroachment of the Capetians within the heart of France formed a coalition of nobles to resist the appointment of the king's cousin. By the early months of 1242, Capetian forces had seized many castles held by the rebellious coalition. Henry III took advantage of the situation and set out from England with his brother Richard to intervene in the conflict and support Hugh who, at this time, was his step-father by virtue of his marriage to Henry's mother Isabella of Angoulême.

Henry, having then conquered much of southern Poitou, then moved south to meet up with Hugh's forces and do battle with the French army stationed in the region headed by Louis of France. The two forces set up camp on opposing sides of the Charente river near Taillebourg. On July 21 a wing of the English army advanced over the bridge leading to the Battle of Taillebourg. In response, the French successfully countered the maneuver with a charge of knights, thus exposing the flank of the rest of the English army. The English fought a successful rearguard action led by Simon De Montfort allowing the army to withdraw south to the nearby city of Saintes where on July 22, where the more decisive Battle of Saintes was fought. Louis pressed his advantage and laid siege to Saintes. Though it is unclear that any armed conflict happened in the siege, eventual Capetian occupation of the city brought an end to the English intervention in the Saintonge war. After the English defeat, the war continued into 1243 between Louis and count Raymond VII of Toulouse who sided with the rebel coalition. Richard conceded Poitou around December 1243.

European Strategy and the Treaty of Paris

By this point, France's economic and military superiority was clear. Henry was increasingly limited in his ability to reassert his claims in France. As a result, Henry adopted what historian Michael Clanchy has described as a "European strategy" by venturing to regain his lands in France through diplomacy rather than force. Henry wrote frequently to Frederick II of the Holy Roman Empire plotting to attain an alliance with him and potentially renew a joint expedition into France. After Frederick's death in 1250, Henry influenced the election for the appointment of a new King of the Romans by bribing German electors. In 1256, Henry successfully managed to get his brother Richard the title, though in reality, the title was still mostly nominal. Henry also became increasingly involved in a joint scheme with Pope Innocent IV to secure the Sicilian throne for his son Edmund. The historian Björn Weiler argues that the so-called Sicilian Business was partially "... driven by competition with, and fear of, the Capetians". Situating another Plantagenet on a foreign throne would have brought great prestige to the royal house of England.

Henry III paying homage to Louis IX of France.

The stage was set for another two-pronged invasion of France as many German nobles were in favor of a war; however, the Pope, intending to focus Henry's attention on Sicily, was pressuring him to make a permanent peace with France instead. Tensions were also escalating within the English realm as Henry's endeavors in Sicily were evidently becoming a costly fiasco. The prospect of a Second Barons' War loomed as the English barons sought to reassert the authority of Magna Carta, which the king had been overstepping for decades. Seeking to restore his position in a seemingly desperate situation, in 1259 Henry purchased the support of Louis of France by the 1259 Treaty of Paris, agreeing to accept the loss of the lands in France that had been seized from him and from his father by Louis and his predecessors since 1202, and to do homage for those that remained in his hands.

The Treaty of Paris put an end to Henry's and any future king of England's ambitions to reestablish the former Angevin Empire which defined the previous hundred years of conflict and rivalry; however, contention over the remaining Plantagenet-held fiefs in France, as well as a general sense of rivalry, remained. For the remainder of Henry's reign, the two kingdoms enjoyed a period of peace and stable relations. Initially for Henry, this was out of necessity in order to gain support against his rebellious barons. However, after meeting in person for the first time in 1254, the two kings became close friends, finding that they shared similar views on religion. Despite this friendship, Henry still frequently reminded Louis of his territorial claims until the treaty was finalized. The kings were on such amicable terms towards the end of their reigns that Louis gifted Henry an elephant from the Seventh Crusade.

Further disputes: 1293-1325

Main articles: Gascon War and War of Saint-Sardos

Gascon War

On 5 June 1286, Edward I of England paid homage to Philip IV of France. The scene took place in a hall of the royal palace in the presence of the court. Taken from the Grandes Chroniques de France, illuminated by Jean Fouquet.

In 1272, Henry was succeeded by his son, Edward, who continued to keep peaceable relations with the kings of France during the beginning of his reign. In 1286, Edward visited France to pay homage to the new king Philip IV "the Fair" of France. However, by 1293, an informal war had broken out between English, Gascon, Norman, and French sailors which resulted in the sacking of La Rochelle which was a part of the Capetian royal demesne. Despite Edmund Crouchback's best efforts to keep the peace and, on behalf of his brother Edward, show no intention of war by giving up Gascony's chief fortress, the French Parlement declared Gascony forfeit when Edward refused to appear before him again in Paris. In response, Edward renounced his vassalage to the French king and prepared for war. Little could be done about the French occupation of Gascony, however, Edward allied himself with Guy, Count of Flanders; Henry III, Count of Bar; John I, count of Holland; and Adolf, king of the Germans, and landed an army in northern France in late August 1297 to support his Flemish allies. However, the French had already beaten back the Flemish at the Battle of Furnes, forcing Edward to move south and support Henry's raids into France instead. In 1299, the Treaties of Montreuil and Chartres, along with Edward's marriage to Philip's half-sister, Margaret, produced a prolonged armistice. Eventually in 1303, a peace treaty was signed that handed Gascony back to Edward and renewed the feudal contract.

War of Saint-Sardos

In 1307, Edward was succeeded by his son Edward II. In 25 January 1308, he married Isabella, daughter of Philip of France, to further resolve the tension between the two crowns. It is, however, during Edward's reign that the territorial extent of the Duchy of Aquitaine slowly dwindled due to a series of legal proceedings in an effort by the French crown and Parlement to take the last remaining Plantagenet foothold in the kingdom without any bloodshed. It is due to one of these legal proceedings that the town of Saint-Sardos switched hands in 15 October 1323. The following day, a local lord named Raymond-Bernard of Montpezat was upset by the decision and raided Saint-Sardos, razing it to the ground. The French government then accused Ralph Basset, the Seneschal of Gascony, of perpetrating the crime by association. Despite Edward's best efforts to diplomatically resolve the crisis caused by his vassal over the course of almost a year, a French army led by Charles of Valois invaded Gascony with very little resistance in August 1324. This humiliation was partially what led to Edward's downfall back in England. On 13 March 1325, Gascony was handed back to the Plantagenets after a truce.

Ironically, Edward III, the son of Isabella and Edward II, would later use his position as grandson of Philip the Fair to claim the Kingdom of France. Therefore, the marriage settlements that sealed the end of the First Hundred Years' War would lead to the casus belli that was employed to declare the "second" Hundred Years' War.

See also

• Angevin Empire
• Hundred Years' War

References

Bibliography

• Héricher, Anne-Marie Flambard; et al. (2007), 1204, La Normandie entre Plantagenêts et Capétiens [1204, Normandy between the Plantagenets & Capetians] (in French), Caen: CRAHM, ISBN 9782902685356.